Tag: preventive diplomacy

Preventive Diplomacy: Invest in the Skills of Frontline Diplomats

In conflict-prone countries, diplomats must employ a special skill-set that allows them to escape from biased conventional wisdoms and balance the personal and the professional in negotiations. Ministries and international organizations should foster mechanisms such as structured spaces for reflection and frequent exchange with fellow diplomats from relevant missions in the region.

This post summarizing some key insights from my PhD thesis was first published on the PeaceLab Blog on 4 July 2019.

European diplomats visiting Abyei, May 2019. Source: https://twitter.com/SWalshEU/media.

Conflict prevention is an important objective for international organizations as well as in many countries’ foreign policies. However, engaging in state-society conflicts presents a fundamental challenge for diplomats and United Nations (UN) officials posted in “at risk” countries – those on the precipice of violence. State-society conflicts are defined as those relating to the distribution of power between and within societal groups as well as their respective access to state resources; in other words, nothing could be more political. Diplomats, however, are supposed to refrain – by law and convention – from meddling in another country’s domestic affairs. At the same time, for a reform process to be credible and sustainable, it ultimately needs to be driven by local actors – not outsiders. In short: diplomats are caught in a conundrum of seemingly contradictory conventions and political objectives.

So, how do frontline diplomatic actors handle this fundamental challenge on a practical level? This question was central to my PhD research, in which I found that such situations require careful balancing acts. Engaging in state-society conflicts is always marred by trade-offs, e.g. between inclusion and exclusion or legitimacy and effectiveness. There is hardly ever a perfect combination of international objectives. It often falls to frontline diplomats posted in countries experiencing such conflicts to balance the trade-offs presented by those objectives. Trying to influence state-society relations also involves balancing the level of coerciveness and the level of intrusion in diplomatic interventions. Fostering this duality in a competent manner requires closer attention to the ways in which frontline diplomats make sense of conflicts, interact with national stakeholders, and coordinate with their diplomatic peers.

This analysis is based on an empirical analysis of diplomacy in South Sudan since independence as well as in post-war Sri Lanka, where I interrogated the views and everyday practices of frontline diplomats. In total, I conducted 165 semi-structured interviews with diplomats, UN officials, civil society representatives, policymakers, and experts.

Prevention needs to balance actors and structures

As the American academic Barnett Rubin poignantly observed in 2002, “all prevention is political”: Constraining the repertoire of elite actions is inherently disruptive. Preventive action rests on a forward-looking, proactive and conflict-sensitive attitude, requiring courage and close interaction with people in the target society. International influence, though, is heavily circumscribed, and may be subject to geopolitical interests, regional rivalries, economic priorities, and divergent political preferences of local elites. Prevention is also disruptive within bureaucratic organizations, as it often entails questioning established relationships and accepted analyses in addition to imagining scenarios and new ways of engaging. In short: Prevention is not a separate activity, but rather a normative objective that affects diplomatic interactions across conflict stages.

Politics in countries at risk of armed conflict is often highly personal and informal. A thorough understanding of the nature of elite bargains by national stakeholders must incorporate both psychological factors and an analysis of a conflict’s political economy. Leaders in state-society conflicts may be geared more towards immediate political survival than reputational concerns, which has consequences for preventive diplomacy. Standard diplomatic appeals to leaders’ legacy or long-term interests may thus be ineffective. Diplomats need to balance the respective roles of structures and actors operating within them. In my research, I discuss how they do so across three levels of the diplomatic process at the country level: Knowledge production, political engagement, and international coordination.

Frontline diplomats are exposed to cognitive short cuts

When analyzing the politics of their host countries, frontline diplomats are exposed to cognitive shortcuts. Knowledge production involves balancing countervailing interpretations. Organizational rules and professional conventions dispose frontline diplomats towards a bias favoring the legitimacy held by formal state institutions. Even beyond the state, external actors easily assume a strong link between national stakeholders and local sources of power, and patron-client relations are often difficult to identify for outsiders. Diplomats need to reconcile structural forces such as ethnicity, religion, economic inequality, and ideology with the agency of their local interlocutors: Is their behavior an aberration or an expression of the governing political economy? Diplomats with long-term expertise are often more adept at recognizing such structural forces – but may also fail to update their beliefs and perceptions with changing elite incentives. This was the case following the independence of South Sudan in 2011, when many long-term observers struggled to recognize how the creation of the state had exacerbated internal tensions in the ruling elite. Such changes can be difficult to identify in bureaucratic systems that talk to each other mainly in writing, and that value conformity over questioning an internal consensus.

Diplomatic engagement with national stakeholders is often most effective when it is based on dialogue and clear principles. Mediating the intra-party dispute in South Sudan before the start of the war, a seasoned diplomat insisted, was essential – but it was absolutely integral to ensure transparency and avoid even the impression of favoring one contestant over the other. When domestic leaders find themselves in a hole, external actors need to hand them a ladder to climb out rather than a shovel to dig deeper. If nationalist leaders insulate themselves, working through interlocutors can help to create space for constructive dialogue. At the same time, the risk of constructive engagement is abuse and impunity that normalizes extra-legal methods in political competition. Following the protocol of state-to-state relations is thereby no longer neutral, but may end up legitimizing the concentration of power in a central government. Informal politics often require personal engagement, using institutional networks and individual experience to gain access to key people and facts. When diplomats engage on a personal level, they may increase their risk of being dragged into domestic political fights.

Diplomatic coordination can provide the political cover for preventive diplomacy and reduce the exposure of informal engagement. This often poses a dilemma for principled engagement: Those international actors with the most influence may not be those with the most transformative approach. The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD)-led mediation in South Sudan was a prime example of this phenomenon, with its member states deeply divided and opposed to freezing the assets of certain South Sudanese elites. At the same time, international pressure is more effective when there exists a broad consensus. Shifting geopolitical power structures mean that alternative sources of legitimacy are readily available, as China’s role in Sri Lanka and its close support for former President Mahinda Rajapaksa demonstrates. International organizations such as a UN Country Team may convene a range of diplomats, and maintain a long-term knowledge base of international engagement – if diplomats regularly share and reflect upon their experiences.

Promoting skills to balance trade-offs and creating spaces for reflection

As my research project demonstrates, the individuals engaged in preventive diplomacy matter. Governments and the UN, which have both committed themselves to conflict prevention, should promote mechanisms, policies, and skill-sets that foster diplomats’ ability to make judgements about balancing trade-offs, weighing countervailing interpretations, savvy engagement, and efficient coordination.

Bureaucratic organizations should establish mechanisms to regularly reflect on the disruptive nature of threats and preventive possibilities. Escaping conventional wisdom requires structured spaces for reflection within missions and across government and international organizations. Too often, missions and regional desks are too thinly stretched to be able to conduct structured conflict analyses regularly. External expertise, regular facilitation, and dedicated support mechanisms from capital/HQ can help overcome the limited capacity of missions in at-risk countries.

In situations with strong regional dimensions such as South Sudan, diplomats from all relevant missions in the region should hold frequent videoconferences and meet for internal workshops. Bureaucracies would do well to revamp human resources practices to ensure that diplomats with appropriate experience and skills are deployed where they are needed. At least for heads of missions, experience in a similar context and some basic country training should be compulsory. Top policymakers must give more weight to principled engagement in at-risk countries and foster an organizational culture that encourages individual responsibility, accepts risks, and allows dissent.

Frontline diplomats, in turn, can benefit from maintaining a detailed overview of national stakeholders, including possible agents of change and spoilers. They need to be prepared to combine personal and professional interactions, based on consistency, integrity, and transparency. For them, what matters is a clear-eyed awareness of risks and benefits, and the readiness to seize opportunities where they arise.

Diplomaten an die Front! Krisenprävention braucht das richtige Personal

Die Bundesregierung braucht mehr Diplomaten in Krisenländern. In krisengeschüttelten Staaten kommt diesen eine Schlüsselrolle zu, um die häufig beklagte Lücke zwischen Frühwarnung und entschiedenem Handeln zu überbrücken. Das deutsche Botschaftspersonal braucht eine bessere Vorbereitung, zusätzliche Ressourcen und ein offenes Ohr in der Zentrale.

This post appeared on the PeaceLab2016 Blog.

Innerstaatliche Krisen entstehen in der Regel vor Ort, zwischen polarisierten Eliten einer Gesellschaft oder als Folge einer marginalisierten Opposition. Lange bevor Entscheidungen des Bundestags über den Einsatz militärischer Mittel anstehen, verdichten sich Zeichen, dass unterdrückte Gruppen Frustration anstauen oder scheinbar stabile Systeme vom Wohl und Wehe autoritärer Herrscher abhängig sind. Neben der eher langfristig angelegten Entwicklungszusammenarbeit, welche konsequent konfliktentschärfend ausgerichtet sein sollte, ist der politische Dialog das Kerngeschäft von Diplomaten.

Gute Diplomaten können die Lücke zwischen Warnung und Reaktion schließen

Eine zentrale Herausforderung in der Krisenprävention ist die häufig identifizierte Lücke zwischen Warnung und einer entschiedenen Reaktion. Dabei greifen die Forderungen wie die von Simon Adams auf diesem Blog zu kurz, die lediglich einen stärkeren „politischen Willen“ einfordern und sich auf normative oder historische Gründe berufen, aus denen Deutschland sich stärker engagierten sollte. Die politischen Zielkonflikte um finanzielle und politische Ressourcen sind real, wie Philipp Rotmann in seinem PeaceLab2016-Beitrag feststellt. Hochrangige Besuche des Außenministers oder Anrufe der Kanzlerin bei Staatschefs, die sich gegen die Aufarbeitung von Menschenrechtsverletzungen wehren, müssen abgewogen werden gegenüber dem Einsatz in bereits lodernden Krisenfeuern oder zu innenpolitisch wichtigeren Themen. Investitionen in Krisenprävention sind hochgradig unsicher. Zudem laufen sie Gefahr, die bilateralen Beziehungen mit der jeweiligen Regierung oder involvierten Nachbarstaaten zu beeinträchtigen.

Frühwarnung ist ein Überzeugungsprozess innerhalb der bürokratischen Maschinerie. Hier kann es leicht zu organisatorischen Engpässen kommen, bevor die politische Leitung weiteren Maßnahmen zustimmt. Die Steuerung von politischen Prozessen tausende Kilometer entfernt von der eigenen Hauptstadt ist nicht allein über Anweisungen und politische Stellungnahmen möglich. Ein größerer operativer Spielraum für Diplomaten in Krisenländern ist daher eine zentrale Voraussetzung für ein aktives Krisenengagement.

Aktiv einmischen und Netzwerke nutzen

Krisenerprobte Diplomaten können auf Erfahrungen in anderen Ländern zurückgreifen und Gelegenheiten erkennen, Eskalationsspiralen umzukehren und die handelnden Akteure zu einer konstruktiven Streitbeilegung zu ermutigen. Sie können die Regierung oder Oppositionsgruppen mit Nichtregierungsorganisationen in Verbindung setzen, sich mit Konfliktparteien ohne größere politische Aufmerksamkeit treffen und, theoretisch zumindest, dabei mit dem notwendigen Taktgefühl hantieren. Im Gegensatz zu nichtstaatlichen Organisationen verfügen sie mitunter über erhebliches politisches Gewicht und können mit staatlichen Akteuren auf gleicher Ebene verhandeln.

Präventiv tätig zu sein bedeutet jedoch, sich in laufende politische Auseinandersetzungen des betreffenden Landes einzumischen. Hier ist Bedachtsamkeit unabdingbar, um den Konflikt nicht zu verschärfen. Diplomaten werden passende Gelegenheiten, sich einzumischen, nur erkennen und erhalten, wenn sie bereits zu „normalen“ Zeiten ein weites Netz an Kontakten unterhalten, das über die der Regierung nahe stehenden Eliten hinausgeht. Belastbare Beziehungen zahlen sich gerade in Krisenzeiten aus.

Das Botschaftspersonal muss dem sich selbst bestätigenden Kreis von Diplomaten, Unternehmern, Journalisten und Regierungsmitarbeitern regelmäßig entfliehen, um festgefahrene Vorurteile über die politische Dynamik eines Landes aufzubrechen. So waren viele westliche Botschaften während des Umsturzes in Ägypten Anfang 2011 überrascht, dass die Mehrheit der Demonstranten keine Islamisten waren. Die Regierung hatte lange genug davon gesprochen, dass die einzige Alternative zur Herrschaft Mubaraks die Muslimbruderschaft sei.

Auslandsvertretungen brauchen mehr und besser ausgebildetes Personal

Das Auswärtige Amt muss Maßnahmen treffen, um die Auslandsvertretungen zu stärken. Dazu gehört ganz grundsätzlich, Krisenposten ernster zu nehmen und mit ausreichend dauerhaftem Personal auszustatten. Zum Beispiel arbeiten viel zu wenige deutsche Diplomaten vor Ort oder in den Nachbarländern im Irak oder zu Syrien. Darüber hinaus sollten die Leitlinien drei Bereiche stärken: Vorbereitung, Ressourcenbereitstellung und Organisationskultur.

Angehende deutsche Diplomaten genießen eine ausführliche Ausbildung zu Beginn ihrer Karriere. Ein Jahr lang pauken sie am Tegeler See Völkerrecht, volkswirtschaftliche Grundlagen, Konsularrecht, Umgang mit der Presse und Sprachen. Doch krisenrelevante Fähigkeiten kommen häufig zu kurz. Erst dieses Jahr führte das Auswärtige Amt ein Mediationstraining für die Attachés (und ein separates Training für erfahrene Diplomaten) ein. Die Postenvorbereitung wird zu großen Teilen den Betroffenen selbst überlassen. Gespräche mit Länderreferenten und den Vorgängern sind richtig, aber Sprachkenntnisse kommen häufig zu kurz. Kein deutscher Diplomat, keine deutsche Diplomatin sollte in ein arabisches Land geschickt werden ohne zumindest Grundkenntnisse der Sprache zu besitzen.

In vielen Staaten, in denen innerstaatliche Konflikte drohen, verfügt Deutschland nur über kleine oder gar keine Vertretungen (mehr). In größeren Staaten nehmen die sonstigen Beziehungen einen großen Teil der Arbeit ein. Daher ist es wichtig, Auslandsvertretungen im Zweifel mit schnell verfügbaren Ressourcen zu unterstützen:

  • der Bereitstellung von Expertise und Ausarbeitungen, die über die Kapazitäten eines einzelnen Länderreferenten, der vielleicht noch für mehre Länder gleichzeitig zuständig ist, hinausgehen;
  • wenn nötig auch der Entsendung von zusätzlichen Mitarbeitern, die gegebenenfalls besondere Fähigkeiten wie Konfliktanalyse oder Mediation abdecken können, oder einfach die Botschaftsleitung entlasten können bei Koordinationstreffen mit anderen internationalen Partnern.

Kleinstprojekte, über deren Vergabe die Botschaften selbst entscheiden können, sind ein weiteres Mittel mit dem Auslandsvertretungen direkt konfliktvermindernde Projekte durchführen können. Die Auswahl der Projekte sollte sich jedoch nicht allein danach richten, welche Organisation die meisten Schlüsselwörter in ihrem Antrag verwendet oder wo man eine Plakette draufkleben kann.

Zuletzt ist eine aktivere diplomatische Präventionsarbeit nicht allein eine Frage der ausreichenden Vorbereitung und materiellen Ausstattung, sondern eine Sache der grundlegenden Einstellung der Diplomaten. Die Leitlinien oder länderspezifische Weisungen der Zentrale können nicht jeden Einzelfall regeln; sie bleiben notwendigerweise abstrakt. Staatssekretäre und Abteilungsleiter sollten eine Organisationskultur fördern, die internen Austausch über Hierarchien und Abteilungen hinweg belohnt, konstruktiv-kritische Berichte ernstnimmt und Eigeninitiative der Auslandsvertretungen gerade im Bereich Krisenprävention anregt. Der Review2014 Prozess hat hier bereits die richtigen Weichen gestellt. Nun gilt es sicherzustellen, dass dieser Wandel auch an den Botschaften umgesetzt wird.

Immer wieder den eigenen Ansatz hinterfragen

Eine aktive diplomatische Rolle in innerstaatlichen Konflikten läuft stets Gefahr, Krisen zu verschärfen, oder doch zumindest zu neuen Problemen zu führen. Zu häufig ist internationales Engagement gekennzeichnet von Stereotypen, Vorurteilen und Templates, obwohl sich Geber weltweit vorgenommen haben, „local ownership“ zu priorisieren. Den eigenen Ansatz regelmäßig zu hinterfragen und Ortskräfte auch in strategische Überlegungen einzubeziehen ist ein wichtiger Anfang – wie auch Cornelia Brinkmann in ihrem PeaceLab2016-Beitrag argumentierte. Am Ende gilt: auch wenn die Einflussmöglichkeiten deutscher Diplomatie begrenzt sind, sollten Diplomaten ihren Spielraum ausschöpfen. Sonst bleiben die hehren Ziele der Leitlinien nur Papier.

“Guerrilla Diplomats”: Conflict Prevention Through Frontline Diplomacy

This post first appeared on the blog sustainable security by the Oxford Research Group.

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With conflict causing much political instability and human suffering in parts of the world, there is a need for preventive diplomacy which stops the outbreak, relapse or escalation of organized violence. Frontline diplomats have potentially crucial roles to play in early preventive efforts.

Conflict prevention is popular in international political circles these days. In April 2016, the UN Security Council and General Assembly passed concurring resolutions on the review of the UN peacebuilding architecture in which they confirmed the essential role of the UN in “preventing the outbreak, escalation, continuation and recurrence of conflict”. On 5 July, the German Federal Foreign Office launched a public outreach process for the development of new guidelines on civilian crisis prevention, an area for which it increased its funds by 260% from 2015 to 2016 to 248.5 million €. Last year, the British government announced plans to increase its Conflict, Stability and Security Fund from 1 to 1.3 billion pounds by 2019/20.

The political reasoning behind the call for prevention is simple: if the escalation of political disputes into organized violence or even outright civil war can be stopped in its tracks, it not only saves lives, but also keeps refugee flows created by war at bay and helps leaders avoid making difficult and potentially unpopular decisions about whether to launch military interventions to quell conflicts. Despite what seemed like a long-term decline of organized violence, the number of armed conflicts has ticked up again in the past few years: 2014 saw 40 armed conflicts, the highest number since 1999, and 126,059 conflict-related fatalities, the highest number since 1994, according to the Uppsala Conflict Data Program. At the end of 2015, 65.3 million people were either internally displaced or international refugees, the highest number since the Second World War. Yet many UN member states tend to view conflict prevention with suspicion, as they fear international meddling in what they perceive to be their domestic political affairs.

Putting high-flying international commitments to conflict prevention into practice and “sustaining peace” throughout the conflict cycle, as the SC and GA affirmed in their parallel resolutions, requires an astute handling of sensitive matters with intelligence and tact, prudence and patience. In short: diplomacy. While government ministries can, of course, reach out to their foreign counterparts directly and permanent representatives negotiate mandates for international organisations in New York or Geneva, frontline diplomats, i.e. members of the foreign service posted abroad, have potentially crucial roles to play in early preventive efforts. Preventive diplomacy aims at the short- to medium-term prevention of the outbreak, relapse or escalation of organized violence, through both coercive and non-coercive means serving a political purpose. Taking preventive diplomacy seriously requires a different, more active and principled kind of diplomacy. In order to do adjust to this profile, frontline diplomats need to be better equipped, trained, and organisationally empowered.

Frontline preventive diplomacy: benefits and risks

Frontline diplomats may be able to resort to thematic expertise, funds or international networks that they can employ to tweak political dynamics in a country. As some diplomats are repeatedly posted to conflict regions, they may draw comparative conclusions and show domestic parties the risky trajectories of their actions. And diplomats are, theoretically at least, trained in the very skills of facilitation, brokering and negotiation that might be needed to cool down heated tensions.
As the International Crisis Group lays out in an excellent recent report, preventive diplomacy is fraught with dilemmas and considerable challenges. Usually, the elites in a given country carry the main responsibility for the escalation of political conflicts, and even high-level officials of major powers have limited entry points when positions have become deeply polarized and parties are entrenched in a zero-sum logic. As the Crisis Group succinctly observes: “Outsiders must tread carefully when pursuing these goals. All early action involves engaging in fluid political environments. There is a high chance of political friction, with misunderstandings and miscalculations derailing plans. No form of crisis response is neutral.”Frontline diplomats may be able to resort to thematic expertise, funds or international networks that they can employ to tweak political dynamics in a country. As some diplomats are repeatedly posted to conflict regions, they may draw comparative conclusions and show domestic parties the risky trajectories of their actions. And diplomats are, theoretically at least, trained in the very skills of facilitation, brokering and negotiation that might be needed to cool down heated tensions.

Frontline diplomats may grant insurgent groups unwarranted legitimacy simply by meeting them. Officially mediating between parties may raise expectations about peaceful conflict resolution, that, when disappointed, may embolden domestic actors to pursue their goals by violent means. Short-term goals of stabilization may conflict with long-term goals of democratisation and transitional justice. Thus, preventive engagements must be based on continuing political analysis and do-no-harm principles.

A different diplomacy

More fundamentally, an active pursuit of conflict prevention requires a different kind of diplomacy. Conventionally, diplomats pursue a narrowly conceived “national interest”, acting on explicit instructions from the capital. They concentrate on the governing authorities as official partners in their bilateral relations. As a result, their engagement is reactive and ad hoc, while preventive diplomacy requires a forward-looking and principled approach, as David Hamburg already wrote in 2003.

“I am not the person who sits all day at the office. I want to see how people live out there,” is how German Ambassador to South Africa Walter Lindner introduces himself in a video message on the embassy’s website. It sums up the kind of spirit diplomats need to embrace are they to further the ambitious objective of conflict prevention. Christopher J. Stevens, the US Ambassador to Libya murdered in 2012, represented the skills of a “guerrilla diplomat” (Daryl Copeland): multilingual, frequently speaking to people on the street, and showing respect and compassion for local cultures, traits which President Obama highlighted in his speech at the UN General Debate in September 2012.

Yet these diplomats are usually seen as “unconventional”. If governments want to take their stated objective of crisis prevention seriously, they need to embrace the following policies that support and empower their agents in the field. Political leaders and senior officials need to foster an organisational culture that grants ambassadors and other frontline diplomats more autonomy, based on frequent reporting on their activities. Leaders need to highlight bold behaviour, even when diplomats encounter hostility from host governments despite their most sensitive efforts; rewarding best practices can start horizontal socialization processes. Ministries need to provide frontline diplomats with the authority to quickly disperse small development funds and include them in internal discussions on government-wide country strategies.

Lastly, they need to offer training to their diplomats in conflict analysis, mediation and critical thinking. The German Federal Foreign Office, for example, only started to provide dedicated mediation courses to its attachés and more senior diplomats a few weeks ago. Similarly, a recent reform report of the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office argued to increase training in stabilisation and mediation as core skills for diplomats posted to fragile areas. Many intra-state conflicts are based on disputes within a country’s political elite; foreign diplomats trained in peace mediation may be able to facilitate conversations between polarized parties. As external third parties, they may help local stakeholders to identify mutually acceptable ways that lead out of their conflicts.

Conclusion

Historically, Western biases and wilful ignorance of domestic politics and cultures have marred international engagement in conflict prevention and resolution. A healthy dose of scepticism towards a renewed push for preventive diplomacy is therefore warranted. Diplomats need to overcome a rigid binary of local stakeholders whose actions need to be prevented and international actors who conduct preventive diplomacy.

If foreign services embrace a bolder, innovative style of (preventive) diplomacy that rewards local sensitivity, autonomy and innovation, however, they may improve the implementation of their foreign policy overall. Frontline diplomats need to travel in their host country extensively, collecting information about local grievances through first-hand observation. They need to reach out to the host population directly, through personal use of social media, as many British diplomats already do. And they need to maintain reliable relationships with key political actors that continue to function in crisis situations. If diplomats do that, they will find that an increased attention towards conflict prevention entails benefits – a deeper understanding of elite politics, influence beyond the capital and credibility with a broad spectrum of a country’s society – that continue to exist when a crisis ends.